Definition

Total shareholder return (TSR) is a financial metric that measures the total return an investor receives from an investment in a company’s stock over a specified period.

What is total shareholder return?

It provides a comprehensive view of the overall performance of an investment.

Total shareholder return is calculated using the following formula:

TSR = capital gain (or loss) + dividends

TSR provides a holistic view of how an investment in a particular stock has performed, considering both changes in stock price and income from dividends. Furthermore, TSR allows investors to compare the performance of a particular stock or investment portfolio with a chosen benchmark index or with other investments in the same industry or sector.

High TSR may indicate high returns, but it could also be associated with higher risk or volatility. On the other hand, low TSR may suggest lower returns but could be linked to lower risk.

Have in mind that TSR doesn’t consider what an investor could have earned by investing the same capital in an alternative opportunity.

Example of total shareholder return

Let’s consider an investor, John, who purchased 100 shares of Company XYZ’s stock at $50 per share one year ago. Over the past year, Company XYZ’s stock price has increased to $60 per share, and the company has paid dividends of $2 per share.

Using the provided information:

• Ending stock price = $60 per share
• Beginning stock price = $50 per share
• Dividends per share = $2

TSR = (($60 – $50 + $2) / $50) x 100% = ($12 / $50) x 100%  = 24%

In this example, the total shareholder return (TSR) for John over the past year is 24%. This means that John has received a 24% return on his investment in Company XYZ’s stock through both capital appreciation and dividends over the one-year period.

Definition

The 4 p’s in business, also known as the marketing mix, are a set of fundamental elements that form the foundation of a company’s marketing strategy.

What are the 4 p’s?

These four elements represent key decisions that marketers need to make in order to successfully promote a product or service. 

1. Product: This refers to the tangible or intangible offerings that a company provides to meet a specific need or want of its target market. Key considerations include product differentiation, positioning in the market, and ensuring that the product aligns with the needs and preferences of the target audience.
2. Price: This relates to the monetary value assigned to the product or service. Pricing strategies can vary widely. Factors influencing pricing decisions include production costs, competitor pricing, and overall pricing strategy of the company.
3. Place: Place, also known as distribution, pertains to the methods and channels used to make the product or service available to the customer. The goal is to ensure that the product is accessible to the target market when and where they want it.
4. Promotion: Promotion involves the activities and methods used to communicate the value of the product or service to the target market. The aim is to create awareness, generate interest, and ultimately persuade customers to make a purchase. Effective promotion also involves considerations of messaging and branding.

The 4 p’s framework provides a structured approach to help businesses address key aspects of their marketing efforts, ensuring that they effectively deliver value to their target audience.

Additionally, in recent years, there have been extensions to the original 4 p’s model, with additional p’s being proposed, such as:

1. People: Focusing on the human element, including employees, customers, and other stakeholders, as a crucial part of a company’s success.
2. Process: Addressing the systems and procedures that govern how a company operates and delivers its products or services.
3. Physical evidence: Pertains to the tangible cues or physical manifestations that customers use to evaluate a service, such as the appearance of a store, the packaging of a product, or the website design.

These additional P’s reflect the evolving nature of business and the increasing recognition of the importance of factors like customer experience, operational efficiency, and employee engagement in a company’s overall success.

Example of the 4 p’s

Here’s a short example illustrating each of the 4 P’s:

1. Product: XYZ Electronics introduces a new smartphone model with advanced features. The product development team ensures that the smartphone meets the needs and preferences of the target market.
2. Price: XYZ Electronics determines the pricing strategy for its new smartphone. After conducting market research and analysis, XYZ Electronics sets the price of the new smartphone at $499, positioning it as a premium product in the market.
3. Place: XYZ Electronics selects distribution channels to make the new smartphone available to customers. The company sells the smartphone through its own online store, as well as through retail partners such as electronics stores and mobile carriers.
4. Promotion: XYZ Electronics launches a marketing campaign to promote the new smartphone and create awareness among target customers. The company uses a mix of advertising channels, including digital ads, social media marketing, and television commercials, to showcase the smartphone’s features and benefits.

In this example, XYZ Electronics effectively applies the 4 P’s of the marketing mix to successfully introduce and market its new smartphone to target customers, driving sales and revenue for the company.

Definition

A sole trader is a type of business structure where an individual operates and owns a business independently. In a sole trader business, there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business entity itself. 

What is a sole trader?

One of the key characteristics of a sole trader business is that the owner has unlimited liability. This means that the owner is personally responsible for all debts, liabilities, and legal obligations of the business. In the event of business debts or legal issues, the owner’s personal assets may be used to cover these obligations.

The owner of a sole trader business is entitled to all the profits generated by the business. However, they are also personally responsible for any losses incurred. This contrasts with other business structures where profits and losses are shared among multiple owners or shareholders.

Sole traders have a high degree of flexibility and autonomy in managing their business. They have the freedom to make decisions without the need for approval from partners or shareholders.

Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be specific legal requirements and regulations that sole traders must adhere to. This can include business registration, licensing, and compliance with industry-specific regulations.

Example of a sole trader

John Smith decides to start a freelance graphic design business. He operates the business under his own name, “John Smith Design.” As a sole trader, John is the sole owner of the business and is personally responsible for all aspects of its operations.

1. Business registration: John registers his business with the appropriate government authorities, obtaining any necessary licenses or permits required to operate as a sole trader in his jurisdiction.
2. Business operations: John sets up his home office with the necessary equipment and software to provide graphic design services to clients.
3. Client acquisition: John networks with potential clients, attends industry events, and promotes his services through online channels to generate business leads.
4. Financial management: John manages his business finances, including invoicing clients, tracking income and expenses, and paying taxes as a self-employed individual.
5. Legal and liability considerations: As a sole trader, John is personally liable for any debts or legal obligations incurred by his business.

In this example, John operates as a sole trader, managing his freelance graphic design business independently.

Definition

A supply chain is a network of organisations, individuals, activities, resources, and information involved in the creation, production, distribution, and delivery of goods and services to end consumers.

What is a supply chain?

A supply chain encompasses all the stages and processes from raw material extraction to the final delivery of a product or service. 

Supply chain participants:

1. Suppliers: These are the entities that provide raw materials, components, or services needed for the production of goods or services. Suppliers can range from local vendors to global partners.
2. Manufacturers/producers: These are the companies or entities responsible for transforming raw materials into finished products.
3. Distributors/wholesalers: Distributors buy products from manufacturers in bulk and then sell them in smaller quantities to retailers. They play a crucial role in moving products closer to the end consumer.
4. Retailers: These are the businesses that sell products directly to consumers. They can be physical stores, e-commerce platforms, or any other channels.
5. Transportation and logistics companies: They handle the movement of goods within the supply chain. This includes transportation, warehousing, and inventory management.
6. Customers/consumers: These are the ultimate end users of the products or services. 

Recognising and preparing for potential disruptions, such as natural disasters, geopolitical events, or supplier issues, to ensure continuity in the supply chain is a crucial part of supply chain management.

Example of a supply chain

Let’s consider a company, XYZ Electronics, that manufactures and sells smartphones:

1. Raw materials suppliers: XYZ Electronics sources raw materials from various suppliers around the world. These suppliers provide the necessary materials for manufacturing smartphones.
2. Manufacturing facilities: Once the raw materials are acquired, XYZ Electronics manufactures the smartphones at its production facilities.
3. Distribution centres: After production, the smartphones are transported to distribution centres located strategically in different regions.
4. Retailers: XYZ Electronics sells its smartphones through retail partners. These retailers purchase the smartphones from the distribution centres and sell them to end customers.
5. End customers: Finally, the smartphones are purchased by end customers, who use them for communication, entertainment, and productivity.

In this example, the supply chain of XYZ Electronics consists of multiple stages. Each stage of the supply chain plays a key role in delivering smartphones to the market efficiently and effectively.

Definition

A startup in business refers to a newly established company or organisation that is in the early stages of its development.

What is a startup?

Startups are typically characterised by their focus on creating and scaling innovative products, services, or technologies to address a specific market need or problem. These companies often operate in dynamic and rapidly evolving industries, and they usually have a high growth potential. 

Unlike traditional small businesses, startups are designed with the intent of achieving rapid growth and scaling their operations. This is often accompanied by the pursuit of significant market share and potentially global expansion.

Since startups are newly established, they have a limited operating history. This means they may not have a track record of financial performance or established customer base.

Startups typically operate with lean teams and resources, seeking to accomplish as much as possible with limited capital. They often prioritise efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, startups aim to create business models that can be scaled quickly and efficiently. This means that the potential for growth is a fundamental consideration in their strategy.

Startups often employ an iterative approach to product development and business strategy. They build, measure, and learn from customer feedback to refine their offerings and business models.

Example of a startup

John and Sarah have an idea for a mobile application that helps users track their daily water intake and stay hydrated. They decide to turn their idea into a startup called “HydraTrack.”

1. Concept development: John and Sarah conduct market research to validate their idea and identify potential competitors.
2. Business plan: John and Sarah create a business plan outlining their startup’s goals, target market, revenue model, and marketing strategy.
3. Funding: To fund their startup, John and Sarah pitch their idea to investors, seeking seed funding to cover initial development and launch expenses.
4. Launch: After several months of development, HydraTrack is ready for launch. John and Sarah release the app on the Apple App Store and Google Play Store, targeting health-conscious individuals looking to improve their hydration habits.
5. Expansion: As HydraTrack grows, John and Sarah explore opportunities to expand their product offerings and reach new markets.

In this example, John and Sarah’s startup, HydraTrack, demonstrates the journey of a tech startup from ideation to launch and growth.

Definition

Stakeholder value is a management principle that emphasises the importance of creating value not only for shareholders, but also for all parties with an interest, or stake, in a company. These stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, communities, and the broader society. 

What is stakeholder value?

Stakeholder value involves identifying and understanding the various groups and individuals who are affected by or can affect the company’s operations, decisions, and performance.

Stakeholder value management seeks to balance the often conflicting interests of different stakeholder groups. This involves considering the needs, concerns, and aspirations of each group.

Recognising the impact of business operations on the environment and taking measures to minimise negative effects, such as reducing waste, conserving resources, and adopting sustainable practices is also a part of stakeholder value.

By considering the interests of all stakeholders, companies can better anticipate and manage risks related to reputational damage, legal issues, and other potential challenges.

Companies committed to stakeholder value often measure and report on their performance in relation to various stakeholder groups. This can include metrics related to employee satisfaction, customer feedback, environmental impact, and community engagement.

Example of stakeholder value

Let’s consider a multinational corporation, XYZ Corp, that manufactures consumer electronics.

1. Customers: XYZ Corp focuses on producing high-quality products that meet the needs and expectations of its customers.
2. Employees: XYZ Corp prioritises the well-being and professional development of its employees. It offers competitive wages, benefits, and opportunities for career advancement.
3. Shareholders: XYZ Corp generates shareholder value by delivering strong financial performance and returns on investment.
4. Suppliers: XYZ Corp maintains mutually beneficial relationships with its suppliers. It collaborates with suppliers to ensure the timely delivery of high-quality components and materials.
5. Communities: XYZ Corp actively engages with the communities in which it operates. It contributes to local economic development, supports charitable initiatives, and implements environmentally sustainable practices.

By creating value for all stakeholders, XYZ Corp builds a positive reputation, fosters long-term relationships, and sustains its competitive advantage in the market.

Definition

Social responsibility in business and finance refers to the ethical and moral obligations that organisations have towards society and the environment, beyond their primary goal of making profits.

What is social responsibility?

Social responsibility encompasses a commitment to act in a way that benefits not only shareholders but also the broader community, including employees, customers, suppliers, local communities, and the environment.

Socially responsible businesses strive to minimise their negative impact on the environment. This may involve reducing pollution, conserving resources, and adopting sustainable practices in production and operations. This also involves contributing resources, whether financial or in-kind, to support social or environmental causes. It may include donations to charities, community development projects, or disaster relief efforts.

Socially responsible businesses actively engage with local communities. This could involve supporting local schools, sponsoring events, or participating in initiatives that benefit the community. Furthermore, businesses committed to social responsibility invest in the well-being and development of their employees. This includes providing fair wages, safe working conditions, opportunities for growth, and a healthy work-life balance.

Businesses that focus on social responsibility value diversity and inclusion in the workplace and respect human rights and adhering to international labour standards. 

Socially responsible organisations may measure and report on their social and environmental impacts. This can include metrics related to carbon emissions, community development, employee satisfaction, and more.

Example of social responsibility

Let’s consider a fictional company, ABC Clothing Co., which specialises in manufacturing clothing.

1. Ethical sourcing: ABC Clothing Co. ensures that all its clothing is produced in factories that adhere to fair labor practices and provide safe working conditions for their employees.
2. Environmental sustainability: ABC Clothing Co. implements sustainable practices in its manufacturing processes to minimise its environmental impact.
3. Community engagement: ABC Clothing Co. actively engages with the local community by supporting charitable initiatives and volunteering efforts.
4. Employee well-being: ABC Clothing Co. prioritises the well-being of its employees by offering competitive wages, benefits, and opportunities for professional development.
5. Transparency and accountability: ABC Clothing Co. maintains transparency in its business operations and communicates openly with its stakeholders about its social and environmental practices.

In this example, ABC Clothing Co. demonstrates social responsibility by integrating ethical, environmental, and community-oriented practices into its business operations, thereby making a positive impact on society while also enhancing its brand reputation and long-term sustainability.

Definition

Shareholder value refers to the total worth of a company as determined by the market value of its outstanding shares of stock.

What is shareholder value?

Shareholder value represents the monetary value that shareholders would receive if the company were to be liquidated or sold. Maximising shareholder value is a fundamental goal for many corporations, as it reflects the company’s ability to generate returns for its investors.

Shareholder value is calculated by multiplying the current market price of one share by the total number of outstanding shares. This provides an estimate of the total value of the company from the perspective of its shareholders.

Factors affecting shareholder value:

1. Financial performance: Factors like revenue growth, profitability, and efficient use of capital can directly impact shareholder value.
2. Market conditions: External factors such as economic conditions, industry trends, and competitive forces can influence the market value of a company’s shares.
3. Management decisions: Effective management decisions regarding capital allocation, investments, and operational efficiency can significantly impact shareholder value.
4. Dividend policy: The company’s dividend policy can affect shareholder value, as consistent and increasing dividends are often viewed positively by investors.

Maximising shareholder value should be pursued ethically and responsibly, considering the impact on all stakeholders and avoiding activities that may be detrimental to society or the environment.

Example of shareholder value

Let’s consider a publicly traded company, XYZ Inc., that manufactures and sells consumer electronics.

1. Financial performance: Over the past year, XYZ Inc. has successfully increased its revenues and profits through effective marketing strategies, cost management, and product innovation.
2. Stock price appreciation: As a result of its strong financial performance, the company’s stock price has increased from $50 per share to $70 per share.
3. Dividends: Additionally, XYZ Inc. has declared and paid dividends to its shareholders, providing them with a direct return on their investment.
4. Total shareholder return: In this example, if the stock price increased by $20 per share and the company paid out $2 per share in dividends, the total shareholder return would be $22 per share.

Overall, the increase in stock price, payment of dividends, and total shareholder return demonstrate how XYZ Inc. has created shareholder value by generating returns for its investors.

Definition

In business and finance, a sector refers to a distinct category or grouping of companies, organisations, or industries that share similar characteristics, products, or services.

What is a sector?

Sectors are used to classify and analyse various parts of the economy based on commonalities such as the nature of the business, target market, and production methods. Understanding sectors is crucial for investors, analysts, policymakers, and business leaders as it provides insights into economic trends, investment opportunities, and risk assessment.

Characteristics of a sector:

1. Common attributes: Sectors typically consist of businesses that share similar characteristics, such as production processes, customer demographics, and market dynamics.
2. Market focus: Sectors are defined by the markets they serve. For example, the technology sector focuses on products and services related to information technology.

Businesses and investors assess the performance and prospects of specific sectors to make informed decisions about where to allocate resources or investments. Some sectors may be more sensitive to economic conditions or regulatory changes.

Example of sectors

Here’s a short example illustrating different sectors:

1. Technology sector: This sector includes companies involved in the development and manufacturing of technology products and services.
2. Healthcare sector: This sector comprises companies involved in providing healthcare products and services.
3. Financial sector: This sector encompasses companies involved in providing financial services.
4. Consumer goods sector: This sector includes companies that produce goods consumed by individuals.
5. Energy sector: This sector comprises companies involved in the production and distribution of energy.

Definition

Scalability in business and finance refers to the ability of a company or financial model to handle increased demands, growth, or expansion without compromising performance, efficiency, or profitability.

What is scalability?

Scalability implies that as a business grows, it can accommodate higher volumes of operations or transactions without a proportional increase in costs or a significant drop in productivity.

Factors contributing to scalability:

1. Processes and systems: Efficient and streamlined processes and systems allow a business to handle higher volumes without proportional increases in resources.
2. Technology and automation: Effective use of technology, automation, and software solutions can enhance scalability by reducing manual efforts and increasing efficiency.
3. Scalable business model: A business model designed to accommodate growth without incurring significant incremental costs is inherently scalable.

Scalable businesses can grow without a linear increase in costs, leading to improved profitability and the businesses often have a competitive edge as they can handle growth more effectively than less scalable counterparts.

Example of scalability

Let’s consider a software company, TechSolutions Inc., that develops and sells a project management software. Initially, TechSolutions operates with a small team of developers and a limited customer base.

1. Early stage: In the early stages, TechSolutions experiences moderate success, attracting a few hundred customers.
2. Increased demand: As TechSolutions gains popularity, the demand for their project management software grows rapidly.
3. Scalability: To accommodate the increased demand, TechSolutions invests in scalable infrastructure and technologies.
4. Efficient operations: With the scalable infrastructure in place, TechSolutions can efficiently manage the stream of new customers without experiencing significant performance issues or downtime.
5. Business growth: As a result of their scalability, TechSolutions continues to grow its customer base and revenue exponentially.

In this example, TechSolutions demonstrates scalability by effectively adapting to increased demand and expanding their operations without compromising performance or efficiency.

Definition

Revolving credit refers to a type of credit arrangement that allows individuals or businesses to borrow money up to a predetermined limit, repay it, and then borrow again.

What is revolving credit?

Unlike a traditional loan, revolving credit provides a continuous line of credit that can be used and repaid repeatedly, as long as it stays within the established credit limit.

The credit limit is the maximum amount a borrower can access through the revolving credit arrangement. It is determined by the lender based on the borrower’s creditworthiness, financial situation, and other factors.

Borrowers are charged interest only on the outstanding balance that they carry from one billing cycle to the next. The interest rate can be variable or fixed, depending on the terms of the credit agreement.

Unlike traditional loans with a fixed repayment schedule, revolving credit does not have a set timeline for repayment. Borrowers have the flexibility to repay the outstanding balance at their own pace.

Revolving credit provides a high level of flexibility and convenience, as it allows borrowers to have access to funds when needed without the need to reapply for a new loan.

Example of revolving credit

Let’s consider a manufacturing company, XYZ Corp, that has a revolving credit facility with a bank for $1,000,000. This credit line allows XYZ Corp to borrow funds up to the specified limit whenever they need additional working capital.

1. In January, XYZ Corp faces a cash flow shortage due to delayed payments from customers. They borrow $500,000 from their revolving credit line to cover operating expenses and payroll.
2. By February, XYZ Corp receives payments from its customers, improving their cash flow position. They repay $400,000 of the $500,000 borrowed, reducing their outstanding balance to $100,000.
3. In March, XYZ Corp secures a large contract that requires upfront investment in raw materials and production equipment. They draw an additional $600,000 from their revolving credit line to finance these expenses.
4. By April, XYZ Corp completes the project and starts receiving revenue from the new contract. They use the incoming cash flow to repay $500,000 of the $600,000 borrowed in March

This example illustrates how revolving credit can help businesses manage cash flow fluctuations and fund short-term financing needs as they arise, providing flexibility and liquidity to support operations and growth.

Definition

Return on invested capital (ROIC) is a financial metric used to evaluate the efficiency and profitability of a company in utilising its invested capital to generate income.

What is return on invested capital?

Return on invested capital provides insight into how effectively a company is deploying its capital to generate returns for its investors.

Return on invested capital is calculated using the following formula:

ROIC = Net operating profit after tax / Invested capital

ROIC specifically focuses on the return generated from the company’s core operations, excluding any financial leveraging or tax advantages.

If ROIC is higher than the cost of capital, it suggests that the company is generating returns in excess of its expenses, indicating positive value creation.

Companies with lower ROIC may have room for improvement in capital allocation, operational efficiency, or profitability. This metric can highlight areas for strategic focus.

Ultimately, a high ROIC is indicative of a company’s ability to generate value for its shareholders, which is a fundamental objective of any business.

Example of return on invested capital

XYZ Corporation reported a net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) of $700,000 for the year ending December 31, 2023. Their invested capital at the beginning of the year was $4,000,000, and at the end of the year, it was $4,500,000.

To calculate ROIC we use the formula from above with $4,250,000 in invested capital:

ROIC = $700,000 / $4,250,000 = 0.1647 or 16.47%

This means that XYZ Corporation generated approximately 16.47% return for every dollar of invested capital during the year.