Definition

Capital refers to the financial resources, assets, or wealth owned or controlled by an individual, business, or entity. It encompasses various forms, including money, property, machinery, investments, and other tangible or intangible assets that hold value.

What is capital?

There are different types of capital, each serving a specific purpose:

1. Financial capital: This includes cash, funds, and other monetary instruments that a business or individual possesses. 
2. Human capital: This refers to the knowledge, skills, expertise, and capabilities of individuals in an organisation. 
3. Physical capital: This encompasses tangible assets like buildings, machinery, equipment, and infrastructure that are used in production or operations.
4. Intellectual capital: This comprises intangible assets such as patents, trademarks, copyrights, and proprietary knowledge.
5. Social capital: This refers to the networks, relationships, and social connections that individuals or organisations have.
6. Natural capital: This encompasses the natural resources and environmental assets that provide value to businesses and society. It includes elements like land, water, minerals, and ecosystems.

Capital plays a crucial role in the functioning and growth of businesses and economies. It allows businesses to invest in new ventures, expand operations, hire employees, and innovate.

Definition

A buyout refers to an individual, group of individuals, or another company purchasing a majority stake in the target entity, giving the buyer substantial control over its operations, decision-making, and future direction. Buyouts can occur for various reasons.

What is a buyout?

Types of buyouts:

1. Management buyout (MBO): In a MBO, the current management team of a company purchases a controlling share from the current owners.
2. Private equity buyout (PEBO): Private equity firms take over a significant share of a company, aiming to improve its performance and eventually sell it for a profit.
3. Leveraged buyout (LBO): In an LBO, a significant portion is financed through debt, often using the assets of the company as collateral. This can enhance the return on investment, but also increase financial risk.
4. Employee buyout (ESOP): Employees of a company acquire a controlling interest in the company.
5. Tender offer: In a tender offer, an entity offers to purchase shares directly from existing shareholders at a specific price.

Prior to a buyout, extensive due diligence is conducted to assess the financial health, legal standing, market position, and potential risks of the target company. This helps to ensure that the purchase is made with full awareness of the entity’s true value and potential challenges.

Buyouts often require a significant amount of capital. After a buyout, the new owners take control of the company and may implement changes in management, operations, and strategy to achieve their specific goals and objectives.

Example of a buyout

ABC Manufacturing is a well-established company in the industrial sector. Its current owners, a group of private equity investors, are looking to exit the business.

XYZ Capital Partners is a private equity firm interested in buying ABC Manufacturing. XYZ believes there is significant potential for operational improvements and cost synergies.

1. Leveraged buyout proposal:
   • XYZ Capital Partners proposes a leveraged buyout to the owners of ABC Manufacturing. The proposal involves buying a significant portion of ABC’s equity using a combination of equity from XYZ and borrowed funds (debt).
2. Use of debt:
   • The use of debt in the buyout is known as leverage. The debt is secured by the assets of ABC Manufacturing, and the company’s future cash flows are expected to cover the debt repayments.
3. Ownership transfer:
   • Upon successful negotiation and agreement, XYZ Capital Partners buys a controlling interest in ABC Manufacturing. The previous owners, the private equity investors, sell their shares, and XYZ becomes the new majority shareholder.
4. Debt Repayment:
   • The cash flows generated by ABC Manufacturing are used to repay the debt incurred during the buyout. The repayment process is structured based on the terms negotiated with the lenders.

Definition

Business-to-consumer (B2C) refers to the type of commerce and business relationship in which companies sell products or provide services directly to individual consumers. In this model, the end customers are the ultimate target market for the goods or services offered. 

What is business-to-consumer?

In a B2C model, businesses market and sell their products or services directly to individual consumers. This can be done through physical storefronts, online marketplaces, or other direct-to-consumer channels.

B2C companies prioritise understanding and meeting the specific needs and preferences of individual consumers. Customer feedback and satisfaction are vital for building brand loyalty, which is crucial for success in this type of commerce.

Example of business-to-consumer

XYZ Electronics is a company that designs and manufactures consumer electronics, including smartphones, laptops, and smart home devices.

1. Customer purchase:
   • A consumer, let’s call her Emily, visits XYZ Electronics’ website, learns about SmartGadget X, and decides to make a purchase. She adds the smartphone to her online shopping cart and completes the transaction by providing her payment details.
2. Delivery to customer:
   • Emily receives the SmartGadget X at her doorstep. The product is exactly as described, and XYZ Electronics includes a user manual and customer support information in the package.

In this B2C example, XYZ Electronics directly sells its consumer electronics product (SmartGadget X) to individual consumers through its online store.

Definition

Business valuation is the assessment of a company’s economic worth, considering factors like assets, liabilities, cash flow, and market position. It’s crucial for decisions in mergers, financial reporting, taxes, estate planning, and potential transactions.

What is business valuation?

Purpose of valuation:

1. Mergers and acquisitions: Businesses may be valued to facilitate buying or selling decisions.
2. Financial reporting: For accounting purposes, companies need to assign a value to their assets and liabilities.
3. Tax planning and compliance: Valuation plays a role in estate planning, gift tax, and other tax-related matters.
4. Litigation and dispute resolution: Valuations may be necessary in legal proceedings, such as shareholder disputes.
5. Fundraising and investments: Investors often require a valuation of a company before deciding to invest.

Methods of valuation:

1. Market approach: This approach compares the subject company to similar businesses that have been sold recently.
2. Income approach: This method evaluates the present value of expected future cash flows or earnings generated by the business.
3. Asset-based approach: This approach focuses on the company’s tangible and intangible assets.

Factors considered in valuation:

1. Financial statements: Income statements, balance sheets, and cash flow statements provide crucial data for valuation.
2. Industry and market conditions: The industry in which the business operates and the overall economic climate can impact its value.
3. Customer base and market share: A loyal customer base and a strong market position can add value.
4. Intellectual property and brand equity: Patents, trademarks, copyrights, and brand recognition can contribute to a business’s worth.

Business valuation is an intricate process and can involve subjective judgments and assumptions. It requires a combination of financial expertise, industry knowledge, and analytical skills. Valuations may need to adhere to specific legal and regulatory standards, especially in cases involving litigation, tax planning, or financial reporting.

If you want to find out what your business is worth, try our business valuation calculator today.

Example of business valuation

1. Financial information:
   • XYZ Tech Solutions is a software development company with consistent annual earnings. The company’s net profit for the most recent year is N$500,000.
2. Earnings multiplier:
   • In this example, let’s use an earnings multiplier of 5. The earnings multiplier, also known as the price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio, reflects the perceived risk and growth potential of the business.
3. Valuation Calculation:
   • Valuation = Net profit × Earnings multiplier
   • Valuation = N$500,000 × 5 = N$2,500,000
4. Interpretation:
   • Based on the earnings multiplier method, the valuation of XYZ Tech Solutions is N$2,500,000. This means that, theoretically, a buyer might be willing to pay around N$2.5 million for the business, considering its current earnings.

Definition

A business plan is a document that outlines a company’s goals, objectives, strategies, and operational plans. It serves as a roadmap for the business, providing a detailed overview of how the company intends to achieve its mission and vision.

What is a business plan?

A well-structured business plan is crucial for attracting investors and ensuring that the business is on track to achieve its goals.

Here are the key components in business plan:

1. Executive summary: This is a concise overview of the entire business plan and summarises the key elements of the business. 
2. Company description: This section provides a thorough overview of the business, covering its history, mission, vision, legal structure, location, and significant achievements.
3. Products or services: In this part, the business describes its offerings, including specifics about the products or services, their features, advantages, and how they meet the needs of the target market
4. Market analysis: This involves an in-depth examination of the industry and market in which the business operates. It includes information on market trends, customer demographics, and competitor analysis.
5. Marketing and sales strategy: This section outlines the company’s approach to reaching and attracting customers. It covers marketing activities, advertising strategies, pricing strategies, and sales tactics.
6. Organisational structure and management: This outlines the company’s structure, including key roles, responsibilities, and qualifications of personnel. It also covers the board of directors, advisors, and external consultants.
7. Product development and operations: This section discusses how the company plans to design, develop, and produce its products or deliver its services. 
8. Financial plan and projections: This section encompasses financial statements, funding needs, budgeting, revenue forecasts, and break-even analysis.
9. Funding and investment: If the business is seeking external funding, this section outlines the amount of capital required, the purpose of the funds, and how they will be utilised. 
10. Risk assessment and mitigation: This part identifies potential risks and challenges the business may face and outlines strategies for mitigating them. 
11. Implementation plan and timeline: This section provides a detailed timeline for executing the strategies outlined in the business plan, including milestones and deadlines.

A business plan should include methods for tracking progress and measuring performance against the goals and objectives outlined in the plan. This ensures accountability and allows for adjustments.

Example of a business plan

Here’s a simplified example for a fictional coffee shop named “Beans & Brews”:

Executive summary:

• Beans & Brews is a specialty coffee shop located in the heart of the city. Our mission is to provide high-quality, ethically sourced coffee in a cozy and inviting environment. The executive summary briefly outlines the business concept, vision, and goals.

Business description:

• Beans & Brews offers a wide range of premium coffee beverages, including espresso-based drinks, single-origin pour-over coffees, and specialty teas. Our coffee is sourced from sustainable and fair-trade suppliers, and we prioritise creating a welcoming atmosphere for customers.

Market analysis:

• We conducted market research to identify the target market, customer preferences, and competitors in the local coffee industry. The analysis indicates a growing demand for premium coffee experiences, and Beans & Brews aims to capture a significant market share.

Organisational structure:

• The business plan outlines the organisational structure of Beans & Brews, including key personnel responsible for operations, marketing, and customer service. Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined to ensure efficient business operations.

Products and services:

• Beans & Brews offers a diverse menu of coffee beverages, teas, and light snacks. Our focus is on providing a unique and memorable coffee experience, and we plan to introduce seasonal specials to keep the menu fresh and exciting for our customers.

Marketing and sales strategy:

• The plan details the marketing and sales approach, including social media campaigns, loyalty programs, and partnerships with local businesses. We aim to build a strong brand presence and attract customers through a combination of online and offline channels.

Financial projections:

• The financial section includes sales forecasts, budgeting, and profit projections for the first three years of operation. We have outlined startup costs, expected revenue, and expenses to provide a clear picture of the financial viability of Beans & Brews.

Funding request:

• If Beans & Brews is seeking external funding, this section outlines the amount required, the purpose of the funds, and the proposed terms. This could include loans, investments, or other financing options.

Definition

A business model is a framework or plan that outlines how a company creates, delivers, and captures value. It encompasses all aspects of a business, from its products or services to its revenue streams and operational strategies.

What is a business model?

A well-defined business model is crucial for a company’s success, as it provides a clear roadmap for how it will generate revenue and sustain its operations.

Here are the key components in business model:

1. Value proposition: This outlines the unique value that a company offers to its customers, how it differs from competitors, and addresses the specific customer needs.
2. Customer segments: This identifies the specific groups of people or organisations that the company aims to serve. 
3. Revenue streams: This defines the ways in which a company generates income from its customers. It can include sales of products or services, subscription fees, licensing, advertising etc.
4. Distribution channels: These are the various methods a company employs to deliver its products or services to customers. Channels can include direct sales, online platforms, wholesalers, retailers, and more.
5. Customer relationships: This outlines the strategies and methods a company uses to build and maintain relationships with its customers. 
6. Key resources: These are the critical assets, skills, and capabilities a company needs to operate effectively. 
7. Key activities: This encompasses the core functions and processes that a company must perform to create and deliver value to its customers. It includes production, marketing, sales, and customer support, among others.
8. Key partnerships: This involves collaborations with other businesses, suppliers, or organisations that help the company operate efficiently and enhance its value proposition.
9. Cost structure: This outlines all the expenses and costs associated with operating the business. It covers both fixed costs and variable costs.

A business model should consider how the company plans to scale its operations and expand its customer base over time. Furthermore, a successful business model is not static; it should be adaptable to changes in market conditions, customer preferences, and technological advancements.

Example of a business plan

Here’s a simplified example of a business model for an online subscription-based streaming service called “Streamify”:

1. Value proposition:
   • Streamify offers a vast library of on-demand streaming content, including movies, TV shows, and exclusive original productions. The platform provides a convenient and affordable way for users to access a wide range of entertainment content from any device with an internet connection.
2. Customer segments:
   • Streamify targets a broad customer base, including individuals who enjoy streaming movies and TV shows. The service caters to various demographics.
3. Channels:
   • The primary channel for Streamify is its online streaming platform accessible through web browsers, mobile apps, and smart TVs. Users can sign up for subscriptions directly on the website or through mobile app stores.
4. Customer relationships:
   • Streamify focuses on building strong customer relationships through personalised recommendations, user-friendly interfaces, and responsive customer support. The platform uses data analytics to understand user preferences and enhance the content recommendation algorithm.
5. Revenue streams:
   • Streamify generates revenue through subscription fees. Users can choose from different subscription plans. The subscription fees are the primary source of income for the service.
6. Key resources:
   • Key resources for Streamify include content licensing agreements with studios and production houses, a robust streaming infrastructure, and a talented team of content curators and technical experts.
7. Key activities:
   • Streamify’s key activities include content acquisition and licensing, platform development and maintenance, marketing and user acquisition, and continuous improvement of the streaming experience.
8. Key partnerships:
   • Streamify forms partnerships with content creators, production studios, and technology providers. These partnerships are crucial for securing exclusive content, ensuring a smooth streaming experience, and expanding the platform’s content library.
9. Cost structure:
   • The main costs for Streamify include content licensing fees, technology infrastructure maintenance, marketing expenses, and personnel costs. As the user base grows, scaling the technology infrastructure becomes a significant consideration.

Definition

A bridge loan, also known as interim financing or a swing loan, is a short-term loan used to provide temporary financial assistance until a more permanent source of funding becomes available.

What is a bridge loan?

Usually, a bridge loan ranges from a few weeks to a few years, but is not intended for long-term financing. It’s typically used in real estate transactions and business scenarios where there’s a need for immediate cash flow to bridge a gap between two major financial events.

Purpose of bridge loans:

1. Real estate: In real estate, bridge loans are used to finance the purchase of a new property before the sale of an existing one. 
2. Business: In business, bridge loans can be used to cover operational expenses, fund working capital needs, or facilitate the acquisition of assets.

Like many loans, bridge loans often require collateral. In real estate, the property being purchased and sometimes the property being sold serve as collateral.

Bridge loans typically come with higher interest rates compared to traditional loans. This is because they are considered riskier due to the short-term nature and potential uncertainties regarding the timing of repayment.

While bridge loans can provide crucial short-term funding, there is risk involved, particularly if the expected events (such as property sale or contract fulfilment) do not materialise as planned.

Example of bridge loan

A real estate developer, XYZ Properties, is planning to build a residential complex.

1. Bridge loan application:
   • XYZ Properties applies for a bridge loan from a financial institution. The bridge loan will provide the necessary funds to purchase the land.
2. Bridge loan terms:
   • The bridge loan has a term of one year with an interest rate of 8%. XYZ Properties expects to secure a construction loan or sell units from the completed project within that time frame to repay the bridge loan.
3. Construction financing:
   • Over the next few months, XYZ Properties secures a long-term construction loan to cover the costs of building the residential complex.
4. Repayment:
   • Upon securing the construction loan, XYZ Properties repays the bridge loan using the funds from the new, more permanent financing source.

Definition

Break-even analysis is a financial assessment tool used by businesses to determine the point at which total revenue equals total costs, resulting in neither profit or loss.

What is a break-even analysis?

It’s a critical component of financial planning and decision-making for businesses of all sizes. The analysis helps companies understand the minimum level of sales to cover all fixed and variable costs.

The break-even point is the point at which total revenue equals total costs. Below this point, the company is operating at a loss, and above it, it’s making a profit. This is also important for decision-making as it helps setting sales targets and pricing strategies, assists in determining the impact of cost changes on profitability, and aids in evaluating the feasibility of new projects or business ventures.

Try our break even calculator to find your break even point.

Businesses may conduct sensitivity analyses to assess how changes in factors like pricing, costs, or sales volume impact the break-even point.

Some of the limitations of the break-even analysis is that it assumes all costs are fixed or variable (which may not always be the case), assumes a linear relationship between costs and output, which may not hold true in all industries, and doesn’t account for other important financial metrics like cash flow or return on investment.

Example of break-even analysis

Imagine a small coffee shop named Brew Haven.

Costs and revenue:

1. Fixed costs:
   • Brew Haven has fixed costs of N$2,000 per month. These include rent, utilities, and insurance.
2. Variable costs:
   • The variable cost per cup of coffee is N$1. This includes the cost of coffee beans, cups, and other ingredients.
3. Selling price:
   • Brew Haven sells each cup of coffee for N$3.

Break-even Analysis:

To find the break-even point, we use the formula:

Break-even point (in units) = Fixed costs / selling price – variable cost per unit

$\text{Break-even point (in units)}=\; N\$$2,000 / (N$3 – N$1) = N$2,000 / N$2 = 1,000 cups

Brew Haven needs to sell 1,000 cups of coffee to cover all fixed and variable costs and reach the break-even point.

Definition

A bank statement is an official document provided by a financial institution, such as a bank or credit union, that outlines the financial transactions and activities of an account over a specific period of time. It serves as a record of the account holder’s financial interactions, including deposits, withdrawals, transfers, and other relevant details.

What is a bank statement?

Here are the key components in bank statement:

1. Account information: A bank statement typically includes details about the account, such as the account holder’s name, account number, and the period covered by the statement.
2. Transaction history: It provides a comprehensive list of all financial transactions related to the account during the specified time period. 
3. Date of transactions: Each transaction is recorded with a date, allowing the account holder to track when specific activities occurred.
4. Description of transactions: Alongside each transaction, there’s typically a brief description or reference. This can include the payee’s name, deposit source, or a transaction code indicating its nature.
5. Interest and fees: Bank statements may also include information about interest earned on deposits or charged on loans, as well as any fees or charges associated with the account.
6. Overdrafts and insufficient funds: If there are instances of overdrafts or insufficient funds, they will be clearly indicated on the statement, along with any associated fees.

Bank statements are important documents for various financial and legal purposes. They can be used as proof of income, for tax reporting, in loan applications, and in legal proceedings.

Example of a bank statement

Account holder: John Doe
Account number: 123456789
Statement period: January 1, 2023, to January 31, 2023

Beginning balance: N$5,000.00

——————————————————————–
Date                   Transaction Description               Amount
——————————————————————–
01/05/2023      Deposit – salary                       +N$3,000.00
01/10/2023      ATM withdrawal                       -N$200.00
01/15/2023      Debit card purchase               -N$150.00
01/20/2023     Online transfer                         -N$500.00
01/25/2023     Check #1234                            -N$100.00
01/31/2023      Service charge                        -N$5.00
——————————————————————-
Ending Balance: N$7,045.00

Actual bank statements may include additional details, such as interest earned, fees, and other information specific to the account.

Definition

Average return refers to the mean rate of gain or loss on an investment over a specified period of time. It is a statistical measure used in finance to assess the performance of an investment or a portfolio. 

What is the average return?

The average return is calculated using the following formula: 

Average return = ∑(Returns for each period) / number of periods

It provides a single figure representing the typical return for a given investment.

The time period used for calculating average return is crucial. It could be daily, monthly, annually, or any other relevant time frame depending on the nature of the investment.

The average return does not provide information about the risk or volatility of an investment. Two investments with the same average return may have significantly different levels of risk.

While average return provides a useful summary of historical performance, it does not indicate the sequence or timing of returns. Additionally, it does not account for compounding, which can significantly impact overall investment results. To get a more comprehensive view of investment performance, average return is often used in conjunction with other metrics.

It’s important to note that past average return is not necessarily indicative of future performance. Various external factors, market conditions, and economic events can significantly impact future returns.

Example of average return

1. Investment performance:
   • Suppose an investor has invested in a stock over a period of five years. The annual returns for each year are as follows: 8%, 12%, -5%, 15%, and 10%.
2. Calculation of average return:
   • To calculate the average return, sum up the individual annual returns and divide by the number of years.
     Average Return = (8% + 12% − 5% + 15% + 10%) / 5​
     Average Return = 40% / 5 = 8%

   The average return for the investment over the five-year period is 8%

Definition

Asset-based lending is a form of business financing where a company secures a loan or line of credit using its assets as collateral. Unlike traditional loans that primarily rely on creditworthiness, asset-based lending is based on the value of the company’s assets, such as accounts receivable, inventory, equipment, and real estate.

What is asset-based lending?

Here are the key components and points about asset-based lending:

1. Collateral-centred: Asset-based lending centres on the value of a company’s assets. Lenders evaluate their quality, liquidity, and marketability to determine the funding amount.
2. Types of collateral:
   • Accounts receivable: Unpaid invoices from customers are considered a common form of collateral. Lenders may advance a percentage of the total receivables’ value.
   • Inventory: Both finished goods and raw materials can be used as collateral. The lending amount is typically based on the inventory’s current market value.
   • Equipment and machinery: Tangible assets like machinery and equipment can be leveraged for financing.
   • Real estate: Owned properties can be used as collateral, although this is more common in larger, long-term arrangements.
3. Revolving line of credit: A common structure in asset-based lending is a revolving line of credit. This allows the borrower to take out funds up to a specified limit, repay, and use again, much like a business credit card.
4. Interest rates and terms: Interest rates for asset-based lending tend to be higher than traditional loans, reflecting the risk involved. 
5. Flexibility and availability: Asset-based lending can be more flexible than other forms of financing. It is often used by companies facing rapid growth, seasonal fluctuations, or financial challenges.
6. Risk and benefits: Asset-based lending offers financing but carries the risk of asset loss if the borrower defaults. So, companies should weigh benefits against risks before opting for asset-based lending.

Overall, asset-based lending can be a valuable financing option for companies with substantial tangible assets, providing them with the working capital needed to grow and thrive in their respective industries.

Example of asset-based lending

XYZ Manufacturing is a mid-sized company specialising in producing custom machinery. It has a diverse range of assets, including accounts receivable and inventory.

The company needs additional capital to fund a new product line and improve working capital.

1. Asset Evaluation:
   • The company’s assets, particularly accounts receivable and inventory, are evaluated. Let’s say XYZ has N$500,000 in accounts receivable and N$700,000 in inventory.
2. Asset-based lending agreement:
   • XYZ enters into an asset-based lending agreement with a financial institution. The lender agrees to provide a revolving line of credit based on a percentage of the assessed value of the company’s accounts receivable and inventory.
3. Loan amount calculation:
   • The lender may offer, for example, 80% of the value of accounts receivable and 50% of the value of inventory. The maximum loan amount would be calculated as follows:
     Loan amount = N$400,000 = N$350,000 = N$750,000
4. Repayment:
   • The loan is a revolving line of credit, and as XYZ receives payments from customers or sells inventory, it can repay the borrowed amount. Interest is charged only on the outstanding balance.

Definition

The asset revenue ratio is a financial metric used to evaluate a company’s efficiency in generating revenue from its assets. It measures how effectively a company utilises its assets to generate sales or revenue. 

What is the asset revenue ratio?

This ratio is calculated using the following formula:

Asset revenue ratio = net sales or revenue / average total assets

It indicates how much revenue is generated for every dollar invested in assets.

The adequacy of the asset revenue ratio can vary significantly by industry. Different industries have different asset revenue norms, so it’s important to compare a company’s ratio to that of its peers.

A high ratio may suggest that the company is effectively using its assets to generate sales, which is generally viewed positively. However, an extremely high ratio might indicate underutilised assets. Conversely, a low ratio could indicate inefficient use of assets, which may be a concern for investors and creditors.

Investors look at this ratio to gauge the company’s operational efficiency and effectiveness in utilising its resources. It can impact stock prices and influence investment decisions.

While the asset revenue ratio is valuable, it’s important to consider industry-specific factors and other financial metrics for a comprehensive evaluation of a company’s operational efficiency.

Example of asset revenue ratio

1. Financial information:
   • ABC Retail has the following financial information for the year:
     • Net sales: N$1,500,000
     • Beginning total assets: N$800,000
     • Ending total assets: N$1,200,000
2. Calculation of asset revenue ratio:
   • The asset revenue ratio is calculated as: ​
     Average total assets = (N$800,000 = N$1,200,000) / 2
     Asset revenue ratio = N$1,500,000 / N$1,200,000 = 1,5 

   The asset revenue ratio for ABC Retail is 1.5, indicating that, on average, the company generates N$1.50 in sales for every N$1 of assets.